Sustainable synthesis of marine-derived hydroxyapatite for biomedical applications: a systematic review on extraction methods and bioactivity

Marine-derived hydroxyapatite (HAp) presents a sustainable and biocompatible alternative for biomedical applications such as bone grafting, dental implants, and tissue engineering. This review systematically explores extraction techniques like calcination, chemical precipitation, hydrothermal, sol-gel, and enzymatic methods used to synthesize HAp from marine biological waste. Findings reveal that marine-derived HAp possesses superior bioactivity, osteoconductivity, and trace-element enrichment compared to synthetic HAp. Integration with 3D printing technologies enables the creation of patient-specific scaffolds with enhanced mechanical and biological performance. Additionally, marine-based HAp exhibits promising in vitro and in vivo performance, including antibacterial properties, hemocompatibility, and bone integration. A comparative analysis emphasizes its sustainability, cost-effectiveness, and clinical potential advantages over conventional synthetic methods. Future research should focus on standardized synthesis protocols and long-term clinical validations.