Simulation-led design framework for cold spray deposition of metal structures considering high- and low-pressure conditions

Despite extensive investigations into cold spray technology across both high-pressure and low-pressure systems, most existing research on optimizing spray settings through trial-and-error experimentation has serious limitations in terms of time, deposition efficiency, and required mechanical properties. This paper presents a comprehensive simulation-based design framework that combines particle-laden flow simulations and finite element modeling under low-pressure and high-pressure cold spray conditions using both ‘Lagrangian Element’ and ‘Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics’ numerical schemes. Simulations analyze the mechanical and thermal responses, namely equivalent plastic strain, temperature distribution, and von Mises stress, during particle-substrate interaction. The results show important correlations between cold spray parameters and particle deformation behavior in both spray modes. The study examines the impact of gas pressure (5–60 bar), temperature (400–1000 °C), and particle size (5–55 μm) on particle velocity and bonding properties. Experiments were conducted with pure Ni as the feedstock for high-pressure and a Ni/Al₂O₃ composite for low-pressure deposition. The generated deposition windows for both pressure regimes were experimentally confirmed and found to be very consistent with simulation predictions. Results from both numerical models and experiments show that particle kinetic energy and morphology have a considerable impact on plastic deformation and temperature evolution upon impact, determining deposition efficiency. The finite element simulation results demonstrate that material properties and spray conditions greatly influence deformation behavior, with softer substrates and HPCS conditions showing deeper penetration and higher thermal softening. A hybrid numerical approach is recommended for a more robust simulation of the cold spray process.