Of demographics, technology, and geography: The social determinants of energy consumption patterns and user behaviour in Saudi Arabia’s residential sector

Driven by increased exposure to climate change hazards and energy price reforms, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) is keen to transform its energy-intensive building sector, with air-conditioning (AC) accounting for 70% of the energy used in buildings. While much past research has focused on technological solutions, this study investigates some of the critical AC usage patterns and energy conservation behavior in the Saudi residential sector. Harnessing a novel and original public survey with spatial granularity, this study explores socio-demographic, economic, and behavioral determinants of AC usage, thermostat preferences, and energy conservation attitudes. The study identifies household income and energy expenditure as among the more influential predictors of user behavior. Lower-income households are significantly less likely to use AC extensively, which may indicate potential equity and affordability concerns, while higher-income groups exhibit extended usage patterns, particularly year-round use and daily operation exceeding 18 h. Education, dwelling type, and ownership status are also influential factors, though with a modest effect. Regional differences, particularly in Makkah and Riyadh, reveal further contextual variations in behavior. AC switch-off and thermostat adjustment attitudes reflect a mix of economic constraints and habitual behavior. Drawing from these findings, the study underscores the need for integrated policy frameworks that combine efficiency measures with targeted behavioral interventions.