Lead-based ceramics for high-performance supercapacitors

Nowadays, supercapacitors are extensively used in energy storage devices owing to their rapid diffusion of charge, large cyclic life, huge power density, and non-toxicity. There is a lot of research on nanomaterials to obtain cheap, efficient, and stable electrode materials. In this regard, ceramic-based materials have highlighted new options for supercapacitor electrodes, but the lower specific surface area impedes the performance characteristics, thereby hampering their use on a large scale. Thus, there is a dire need to understand the basics of these ceramics, the optimization techniques, and the research development to improve electrical conductivity, cycling life, power density, and ion transferability. Here, in this study, various ceramic materials are overviewed especially metal-based oxides, mixed ceramics, single-element and multi-element-based ceramics, hydro-oxide ceramics, and other binary metallic oxides (spinal ceramics). Each composition has its own merits and demerits, which greatly rely on the synthesis technique and additives concentration. Other factors like temperature and the sintering environment also affect key parameters like particle size. Moreover, the principle and characteristics of various types of electroceramics have also been discussed in detail. Our focus is to highlight the development of ceramic materials for supercapacitor application and their key factors, and characteristics, lead-based ferroelectric, relaxor, and anti-ferroelectric materials. Additionally, the conclusion and futuristic approach have also been discussed.