Integrated assessment of urban air pollution in South Tangerang, Indonesia: synergizing ground monitoring, Sentinel-5P retrievals, and HYSPLIT trajectory analysis

This study investigates the spatiotemporal variation of six key air pollutants (PM_2.5, PM₁₀, NO₂, SO₂, CO, and O₃) in South Tangerang City throughout 2023 using ground-based Air Quality Monitoring Station (AQMS) data, Sentinel-5P (TROPOMI) satellite imagery, and HYSPLIT backward trajectory modeling. The pollutants exhibited distinct diurnal and seasonal patterns influenced by traffic activity, industrial emissions, and meteorological conditions. PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ reached their highest levels during the dry season (June–October), with peak monthly averages of 67.7 ± 30.5 μg/m3 and 70.2 ± 39.7 μg/m3, respectively. CO concentrations peaked in May (1,969 ± 919.9 μg/m3) during the transition to the dry season, while NO₂ reached 153.0 ± 33.7 μg/m3 in November, likely due to reduced photolysis under lower solar radiation. SO₂ peaked in June (104.9 ± 12.2 μg/m3). Spatial analysis using Sentinel-5P imagery revealed urban-industrial hotspots of NO₂, CO, and Aerosol Index (AI) over South Tangerang and neighboring cities (e.g., Jakarta and Bekasi). Trajectory modeling indicated that 56.1% of air masses originated from the northwest, highlighting the role of regional transport in pollutant accumulation. Emission inventory data confirmed that both point (industrial) and area sources (fuel stations, restaurants, and offices) significantly contribute to pollutant loads, especially NO₂ and SO₂. These findings underscore the need for integrated air quality management across the Jabodetabek region. Sentinel-5P satellite data complement ground monitoring by identifying pollutant hotspots beyond AQMS coverage and can support modeling efforts for predictive applications.