Indigenous Minerals and Industrial By-Products for Non-Carbonate Cementitious Materials: A Critical Review

The production of Portland cement is energy and carbon intensive. Each kilogram of cement produced generates approximately 0.5–0.9 kg of CO₂ due to burning of fuel for maintaining a high temperature in the cement rotary kiln and calcination of calcium carbonate. Furthermore, conventional cementitious systems can be susceptible to degradation under harsh environmental exposures. Consequently, there is a pressing need for alternative binders that avoid the calcination of calcium carbonate (i.e., non-carbonate binders) while delivering superior strength and durability. This review synthesizes the development of non-carbonate binder systems with particular emphasis on indigenous minerals and industrial by-products available in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia for their potential utilization in such binders. The non-carbonate binders examined include alkali-activated binders (including geopolymers), celitement (α-C₂S) binders, belite–ye’elimite (CSA) binders, Mg-based binders, lime–calcined clay (LC3) systems, and supersulfated binders. The effects of incorporating locally available indigenous minerals and industrial by-products such as limestone powder, gypsum, clays, natural pozzolans, marble and granite dust, cement kiln dust, red mud, oil ash, silicomanganese dust, and phosphogypsum were critically reviewed. The literature indicates that leveraging these binders and indigenous resources can reduce construction costs and carbon footprint while conserving natural resources and advancing compliance with emerging energy-conservation and greenhouse gas regulations.