Inclusive mobility at risk: Perceived safety and women's intentions to use paratransit in Lahore

Introduction In many developing countries, women face limited mobility options and frequently rely on paratransit due to its affordability, flexible routing, and broad spatial coverage. While paratransit plays a vital role in supporting inclusive urban mobility, especially in underserved areas, its informal nature raises significant safety and accessibility concerns for women. Methods This study employs an extended Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) framework to examine women's behavioural intentions to use paratransit in Lahore, Pakistan. The model includes TPB core variables, such as attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control, along with additional variables, including perceived safety risks, perceived likelihood of harassment, and perceived freedom to use paratransit. Through a questionnaire survey, data were collected from 319 women and analysed using Structural Equation Modeling. Results The findings reveal that attitude (β = 0.241, p < 0.001) and perceived behavioural control (β = 0.366, p < 0.001) are significant positive predictors of intention to use paratransit. Conversely, subjective norms and perceived freedom to use paratransit were not statistically significant. Perceived safety risks were found to have a direct negative influence on behavioural intention (β = −0.175, p < 0.01), while the perceived likelihood of harassment indirectly reduced intentions to use paratransit by negatively impacting attitude and perceived behavioural control. Conclusions These findings suggest that women's intentions to use paratransit are shaped not only by service attributes but also by perceived safety risks. Strengthening confidence through safer infrastructure, effective complaint systems, and gender-sensitive operator training can improve the safety and support inclusive urban mobility.