Human health risk assessment of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) through consumption of marine seafood in the eastern province of Saudi Arabia

Arabian Gulf, being semi-enclosed with intense anthropogenic activity, has raised concerns on the level of heavy metal contamination; yet comprehensive Human health risk assessments on the marine seafood are lacking. In this study, we examined the heavy metal contamination and its associated human health risk by measuring arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg), and nickel (Ni) in four commercial seafood species (Lethrinus nebulosus , Siganus canaliculatus , Epinephelus coioides , and Penaeus semisulcatus) from Saudi Arabia's eastern coast. The analysis of 277 muscle and liver samples during summer and winter seasons demonstrated significant spatial and temporal variations, with liver tissues accumulating higher metal concentrations than muscle (Metal Pollution Index up to 1.04). While non-carcinogenic risks (THQ) for finfish muscle tissue remained within safety limits, Penaeus semisulcatus (shrimp) exhibited elevated values (THQ > 1), primarily driven by mercury and cadmium. Carcinogenic risk assessment indicated that for high-level consumers (42 g/day), P. semisulcatus posed a significant risk (summer TCR: 3.97 × 10⁻⁴), exceeding the USEPA threshold (1 × 10⁻⁴). This risk was driven (~85%) by nickel and estimated inorganic arsenic (estimated using regional conversion factors). Strong winter correlations were observed between Cr and Ni (r = 0.81–0.97, p < 0.01) and strong summer correlations were observed between Cd and Hg (r = 0.76–0.85, p < 0.01). This study confirms that while risks for average consumers are negligible, the elevated risks in shrimp for high-level consumers necessitate targeted monitoring and potential consumption advisories.