High-resolution remote sensing data-based urban heat island study in Chongqing and Changde City, China

The main determinants of climate change, forest dynamics, land alteration, heat stress, ecological disturbances, and urban expansion. Addressing challenges posed by increasing anthropogenic activities due to population growth and rapid urbanization requires implementing appropriate solutions and fostering greater awareness, leading to improved, healthier livelihoods. Significant changes in urban expansion have occurred in the central and south Changde and the north, south, northwest, and central Chongqing. Significant urban expansion is observed, with a notable increase of 703.19 km² in built-up land (Chongqing) and 93.88 km² (Changde). Cropland has decreased by 103.36 km² in Changde due to urban expansion, while Chongqing has seen an increase of 395.45 km² in cropland. Notably, the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) values have undergone considerable changes, The average normalized difference built-up index (NDBI) increased by an average of 0.07 between 2017 and 2021, going from 0.85 in 2017 to 0.79 in 2021. Average temperatures increased by 0.45 °C in Chongqing and 0.51 °C in Changde, with noticeable effects on urban thermal features and UHIs. These research findings contribute to a more insightful vision for future disaster management, smart city development, environmental protection awareness, and adaptation policies in both cities.