Graphene materials at scale: Synthesis routes, market and techno-economic landscape, and net-zero applications

Graphene has emerged as a material of substantial technological and commercial significance, owing to its exceptional electrical conductivity, mechanical strength, thermal stability, and near-total optical transparency. Recent progress in synthesis and processing technologies has enabled its large-scale industrial production, enabling graphene to transition from a laboratory discovery to a commercially viable material. This review critically evaluates the current landscape of graphene commercialization, emphasizing scalable production routes, market development, techno-economic feasibility, and sustainability-oriented applications. The graphene material family (including graphene nanoplatelets, graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), and continuous chemical vapor deposition (CVD)-grown films) is systematically categorized and compared in terms of structural configuration, physicochemical behavior, and industrial applicability. Techno-economic analyses demonstrate a pronounced decline in production costs, decreasing from approximately $200/kg in 2020 to projected values of $70–80/kg by 2028, with optimistic projections approaching $20/kg. Global production has grown markedly, from around 14 t in 2009 to nearly 23,000 t by 2025, with the market expected to reach several billion US dollars by 2030, led by Asian manufacturing hubs and global R&D efforts. Within the framework of net-zero technologies, graphene's high surface area, electrical conductivity, and tunable surface chemistry facilitate advancements in energy storage and conversion devices such as batteries, supercapacitors, and fuel cells. Additionally, graphene-based membranes exhibit superior selectivity and energy efficiency in water desalination and gas separation. These developments underscore graphene's advancing technological maturity while highlighting persistent challenges in scaling production, ensuring material standardization, and achieving widespread industrial implementation.