g-C₃N₄/ZnO nano-reinforced polysulfonate-PVA dual-network hydrogels for enhanced antibacterial ability and breathable wound healing

Wound healing remains a significant challenge in medical science due to the complexity of the process. Hydrogels have emerged as promising materials for wound management, yet achieving non-cytotoxicity, biodegradability, and mechanical robustness in a single formulation continues to be a research focus. This study aims to develop polysulfonate-polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) (poly(2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid) (PAMPs)/PVA) membranes reinforced with ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) and g-C₃N₄ to meet these requirements. The fabricated membranes were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and atomic force microscopy (AFM), and were subjected to various biological evaluations including swelling ratios, water vapor transmission rates (WVTR), antibacterial activity, cytotoxicity, and in-vivo wound healing in a mouse model. The membranes exhibited mechanical strengths of 42.6 MPa and strains up to 183.35 %. XRD and FTIR confirmed the successful incorporation of ZnO NPs and g-C₃N₄, while SEM and AFM revealed a rough surface morphology conducive to cell adhesion. The membranes achieved moisture retention rates over 90 %, WVTR values up to 71.66 h g⁻¹ m⁻², and swelling ratios as high as 116.06 %. Cytotoxicity tests demonstrated cellular viability exceeding 84.37 %, and antibacterial assays showed significant inhibition zones. In vivo studies indicated an 88.26 % wound healing rate within 9 days, surpassing traditional dressings and saline treatments. These results suggest that PAMPs/PVA/g-C₃N₄/ZnO membranes are found to be highly effective for wound dressing applications, combining superior mechanical properties, biocompatibility, and enhanced healing efficacy.