E-Fuels for Net-Zero: Innovations and Outlook for Production Technologies and Carbon Capture

The rising global concern over climate change, driven primarily by carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions, emphasizes the urgent need for sustainable alternatives in the transportation sector. Fossil fuel consumption continues to be a significant contributor to these emissions, prompting the investigation of various energy alternatives, including electrofuels (e-fuels) which have emerged as a viable option. E-fuels are carbon-based synthetic fuels synthesized from CO₂ and water (H₂O), utilizing renewable electricity as the primary energy input. This review presents a detailed assessment of major e-fuel production pathways, including methanation, RWGS, Fischer–Tropsch synthesis, e-methanol, and e-ammonia routes. Conversion efficiencies across these processes typically range from 10% to 35% depending on feedstock and technology. The advantages and limitations of each production technique are critically assessed, offering potential future recommendations for e-fuel research. This review also evaluates different catalysts across these routes, examining their selectivity, thermal stability, and integration potential with direct air capture or CCUS systems. Comparative analysis with hydrogen, biofuels, and electrification highlights e-fuels’ unique advantage in sectors requiring high energy density and infrastructure compatibility. The synthesis, scalability, and techno-economic challenges of each route are reviewed to guide future research and policy directions toward net-zero energy systems.