Advancing Microbial Fuel Cells From Conventional Systems to Innovative Anode Electrodes for Enhanced Performance and Sustainability

Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are grabbing attention as a sustainable technology for concurrent wastewater treatment and bioelectricity generation. The anode plays an active role in this system by supporting bacterial attachment, facilitating substrate oxidation, and enabling electron transfer. This review presents an updated assessment of recent advances in anode materials. The particular emphasis is on biomass-derived carbons, graphene-based composites, and emerging hybrid electrodes. The discussion highlights how surface chemistry, porosity, conductivity, and structural modifications influence biofilm formation and electrochemical behavior. It further discusses the key challenges related to cost, durability, and scale-up, alongside the environmental implications of using nanomaterials for enhancing the MFCs' competence. The review also outlines future directions for improving material design, understanding microbial-electrode interactions, and evaluating performance under real wastewater conditions. These insights provide a foundation for developing practical, cost-effective anodes that support the wider operation of MFCs technology.