A review of particulate matter (PM) in Indonesia: trends, health impact, challenges, and options

This study reviews particulate matter (PM) research in Indonesia, focusing on current trends, health impacts, challenges, and future research directions. As the largest archipelago country, Indonesia faces severe pollution annually due to rapid urbanization, industrial activities, vehicle emissions, and forest fires. PM levels often exceed WHO and NAAQS standards, especially in urban areas and during forest fire seasons, posing significant health risks to vulnerable populations. Most PM studies have been conducted in major cities, primarily concentrated on Java Island. While there are several studies in Sumatra and Borneo, they commonly focus on the effects of peatland fires, and research in the eastern part of Indonesia remains limited. Substantial gaps in PM studies have been highlighted, including limited monitoring infrastructure, technology, data inconsistencies, and socio-economic challenges. Recent studies emphasize the need for more research on size-segregated PM, including ultrafine particles (UFPs), to fully understand their behavior in the atmosphere, sources, distribution, and health impacts. Chemical analysis and source apportionment studies are also crucial but currently limited due to equipment and analytical challenges. To improve PM management, the study proposes strategic options, including adopting advanced monitoring technologies along with low-cost samplers, increasing funding and technical training, enhancing coordination among stakeholders, and fostering international collaboration. Furthermore, public awareness campaigns and community-based monitoring are essential for effective air quality management.