A review of advances in 3D and 4D bioprinting: toward mass individualization paradigm

Human tissues and organs are not permanent and may deteriorate or malfunction over time. Thus, the production of artificial tissues and organs is required. It can be achieved through 3D and 4D bioprinting methods, which combine living cells with biomaterials to generate complex living tissues and organs. These emerging manufacturing systems are reshaping the healthcare system. The presence of smart and stimuli-responsive materials ensures the desired shape and functionality of artificial organs and tissues. Most of the existing review works lack discussions of human-driven and value-oriented manufacturing schemes in bioprinting. This review article focuses on a human-interest enabled manufacturing paradigm for advancing 3D and 4D bioprinting. Involving humans in the bioprinting process establishes a human-driven system that considers value elements, ensuring reliable patient-specific products. For addressing customization, personalization, and individualization of bio-printed products, the article discusses advanced technologies like robotics, metaverses/XR, and artificial intelligence in bioprinting. The seamless interaction between humans and breakthrough technologies, combined with virtual, augmented, and mixed reality concepts, as well as the application of artificial intelligence in the bioprinting process and smart materials, enhances the bioprinting manufacturing system toward individualization. Furthermore, various application domains in tissue engineering and drug delivery systems for producing patient-specific tissues and organs are explored. Lastly, the article presents challenges and barriers in 3D/4D bioprinting, elaborating on technical and ethical considerations. It also highlights promising future trends for advancing the bioprinting industry further.